Social Media and Citizens` Participations in Politics in a Multi-Cultural Society like Nigeria
Main Article Content
Abstract
Social media have become important tools for political participation worldwide, and Nigeria is not an exception. With a multi-cultural society like Nigeria, social media provide platforms for citizens to engage in politics, discuss issues, and participate in the political process. The objectives of this research paper were to determine if respondents engage in politics through social media; ascertain the social media platforms through which respondents participate in politics, and determine the nature of their participation through social media. The study was hinged on the Agenda-Setting Theory. It was conducted through a survey of 500 participants selected from Midwestern Nigeria (Delta and Edo States). The findings revealed that social media play a significant role in citizens' participation in politics in Nigeria, and that respondents use various social media platforms to engage in politics. The study also revealed that citizens' participation through social media is mostly limited to discussions, sharing of information, and social advocacy. This study concluded that social media play significant roles in citizens' participation in politics in a multicultural society like Nigeria. It was therefore recommended that there should be the development of online civic education initiatives that provide citizens with comprehensive knowledge about political processes, institutions, and their rights and responsibilities. Also, there is the need for increased education and awareness on the use of social media for political participation. Further, itizens need to be educated on how to use social media platforms for political activities and how to differentiate between credible and fake news.
Article Details
How to Cite
Guanah, J. S. (2025). Social Media and Citizens` Participations in Politics in a Multi-Cultural Society like Nigeria. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 5(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.33258/polit.v5i1.1234
Section
Articles
References
Adegoke, A. A., & Aderemi, H. O. (2021). Social media and citizen journalism in political participation: Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Media Critiques, 7(27), 27-43.
Adegoke, A. A., & Oso, L. (2015). Social media and political participation in Nigeria: A case study of Twitter usage during the 2015 general elections. International Journal of Communication, 9, 1904-1924.
Adekunle, A. F., & Afolabi, O. (2019). The role of social media in political participation in Nigeria. Journal of Public Affairs, 19(2), 1-11.
Adepoju, O., & Oluwatosin, D. A. (2022). Power to the people: Social media as a catalyst for political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Communication, 16, 4319-4336.
Agbaje, A., & Adejumobi, S. (Eds.). (2007). Nigeria's critical election, 2007. Nordic Africa Institute.
Aginam, A. M. (2017). Social media and political participation in Nigeria. Journal of African Media Studies, 9(2), 187-204.
Akinyetun, T. O., & Akinola, O. A. (2022). Social media, political efficacy and political participation in Nigeria. Plaridel: A Philippine Journal of Communication, Media, and Society, 19(1), 1-16.
Akwara, A. O., & Oyedele, E. (2019). Social media and political behavior: Evidence from Nigeria's 2015 presidential election. Journal of African Elections, 18(2), 118-137.
Ameyaw, R. B., & Saeed, T. (2020). Social media and political communication in Africa: An analysis of the role of Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp in Nigeria's 2019 general elections. Media International Australia, 178(1), 22-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X20959590
Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. (2019). Social media and political participation in Ghana. Information Technology & People, 32(3), 675-696. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-10-2017-0346
Aondover, E. M. & Pate, H. (2021). National interest, freedom of expression and the Nigerian press in contemporary democratic context. Brazilian Journal of African Studies, 6(11), 233-249.
Aondover, E. M. (2019). Good governance and accountability: an assessment of the media’s role in achieving transparency in the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. Brazilian Journal of African Studies, 4(7), 209-225.
Aondover, E. M., & Akin-Odukoya, O. (2024). Trends and Dynamics of Popular Culture and Media Messages on Public Transport Literature in Nigeria. Lakhomi Journal Scientific Journal of Culture, 5(3), 183-195.
Aondover, E. M., Daushe, A. U., Ogunbola, O., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Media Coverage of Internally Displaced Persons in two Selected Newspapers in Nigeria. Journal of Migration and Health, 100301.
Aondover, E. M., Hile,M. M. & Yar’Adua, S. M. (2023). Ethical Issues and Insecurity in Africa: The Media Dimension. Konfrontasi Journal: Culture, Economy and Social Changes, 10 (2), 58-68 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33258/konfrontasi2.v10i2.272.
Aondover, E. M., Maradun, L. U., & Yar’Adua, S. M. (2022). Mediatization of the net and internetization of the print media in Northern Nigeria. Unisia, 40(2), 335-356.
Aondover, E. M., Oyeleye, S. A., & Aliyu, M. A. (2023). New World Information and Communication Order and its changing role in Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) Kano. Unisia, 41(1).
Aondover, E. M., Tosin, Y. A. N., Akin-Odukoya, O. O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Exploring the Application of Social Media in Governance in Nigeria. SIASAT, 10(1), 30-43.
Aondover, P. O., Aondover, E. M., & Babele, A. M. (2022). Two nations, same technology, different outcomes: Analysis of technology application in Africa and America. Journal of Educational Research and Review, 1(1), 001-008.
Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531-1542.
Bekafigo, M., & McBride, A. (2013). Who tweets about politics? Political participation of Twitter users during the 2011 gubernatorial elections. Social Science Computer Review, 31(5), 625-643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439313490405.
Bode, L., & Dalrymple, K. E. (2019). Politics in 140 characters or less: Campaign communication, network interaction, and political participation on Twitter. Journal of Political Marketing, 18(4), 381-405.
Boulianne, S. (2015). Social media use and participation: A meta-analysis of current research. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 524-538. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1008542
Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2017). The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Advances in Political Psychology, 38(S1), 127-150.
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Jung, N., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals' social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(3), 319-336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01574.x
Graham, T., Broersma, M., Hazelhoff, K., & van't Haar, G. (2013). Between broadcasting political messages and interacting with voters: The use of Twitter during the 2010 UK general election campaign. Information, Communication & Society, 16(5), 692- 716. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.785580.
Guanah, J. S. (2024). Social Media, Popular Culture and Contending African Ethical Models. In G. E. Oboh (Ed) Social Science Ethics for Research and Practice: An African Perspective. (pp. 25-42). United Kingdom: Ethics International Press Ltd.
Guanah, J. S. (2022). Politicspreneurs and Political Violence in Build-Up to Polls, On Election Day and Afterwards In Nigeria: Media as Intermediating Forces. International Journal of Communication and Social Sciences (IJCSS), 1(3):52-73.
Howard, P. N., & Hussain, M. M. (2013). Democracy's fourth wave? Digital media and the Arab Spring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ibrahim, S., & Alli, A. (2018). The influence of social media on political participation among Nigerian university students. Telematics and Informatics, 35(2), 464-474.
Idris, M. K., & Msughter, A. E. (2022). Sources of Information on National Issues among Border Communities in Yobe State, Nigeria. ASEAN Journal of Community Engagement, 6(1), 22-47.
Joseph, R. A. (2015). Social media and political change in Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 3(4), 1-10..
Kari, D. A. (2021). The use of social media in political campaigns in Nigeria: A study of the 2019 general elections. International Journal of Communication and Media Studies, 11(1), 51-67.
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19-32). London: Sage Publications.
Kruikemeier, S., Van Noort, G., Vliegenthart, R., & De Vreese, C. H. (2019). Real-time media coverage and its effects: Linking television news content to online and offline political participation. Political Communication, 36(4), 481-503.
Kurfi, M. Y, Aondover, E. M. & Mohammed. I. (2021). Digital Images on Social Media and Proliferation of Fake News on Covid-19 in Kano, Nigeria. Galactica Media: Journal of Media Studies, 1(1), 103-124. Doi: https://doi.org/10.46539/gmd.v3i1.111.
Larsson, A. O., & Kalsnes, B. (2014). The post-subculturalist: Blogging as a political and counter-cultural project. Journal of Youth Studies, 17(1), 24-41.
Lee, J. K., & Ma, L. (2012). News sharing in social media: The effect of gratifications and prior experience. Computers in Human behaviour, 28 (2), 331-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.002
Lee, S. T., Park, J. S., & Kim, Y. J. (2014). Deliberation among netizens: A longitudinal analysis of online discussion on nuclear power plants in South Korea. Information, Communication & Society, 17(6), 712-730. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.895948.
Madueke, O., Nwosu. C., Ogbonnaya. C., Anumadu, A., & Okeke, V. O. (2017). The role of social media in enhancing political participation in Nigeria. IDOSR Journal of Arts and Management, 2(3): 44-54,
Madueke, O., Ogbonna, C., & Anumadu, E. (2017). Public perception of social media contributions to political participation processes in Delta State, Nigeria. Danubius Journal of Communication, 12(1), 11-25.
Maikaba, B., & Msughter, A. E. (2019). Digital Media and Cultural Globalisation: The Fate of African Value System. Humanities and Social Sciences, 12(1), 214-220.
Mojaye, E. M., & Aondover, E. M. (2022). Theoretical perspectives in world information systems: A propositional appraisal of new media-communication imperatives. Journal of Communication and Media Research, 14(1), 100-106.
Msughter, A. E., Perpetua, A. O., & Itiafa, A. L. (2023). Artificial Intelligence and the Media: Revisiting Digital Dichotomy Theory. In Information Systems Management. IntechOpen.
Neuman, W. R., Guggenheim, L., Mo Jang, S., & Bae, S. Y. (2014). The dynamics of public attention: Agenda-setting theory meets big data. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 193-214.
Nwokeafor, L. U. (2020). The impact of social media on political communication during the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. Journal of Media Critiques, 6(22), 7-21.
Obasi, M. C., & Msughter, A. E. (2023). Assessment of media coverage of environmental hazards in mining communities in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Environmental Challenges, 13, 100758.
Ogunsanwo, O. O. (2018). The role of social media in enhancing political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Communication, 12, 3877-3894.
Olaleye, S. A., & Asongu, S. A. (2018). Ethnic diversity and social media representation during Nigeria's 2015 general elections. Journal of African Elections, 17(2), 87-111.
Olorunnisola, A. A., & Adegoke, I. O. (2020). Political use of social media in Nigeria: An analysis of the 2015 and 2019 general elections. Global Media Journal: African Edition, 14(1), 1-20.
Onyekwuluje, I. O. (2021). The use of social media for political participation by youths in Nigeria. Journal of Political Science and Public Administration, 7(3), 1-12.
Oreoluwa, P. A., Vitalis, P. O., Nneka, A. Q., Collins-Dike, J., & Ridwan, M. (2024). Online Harassment of Female Journalist in Lagos State. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 4(3), 162-174.
Owens-Ibie, N., & Aondover, E. M. (2024). Hate postings on social media and peace imperatives in Nigeria. Legal challenges and political strategies in the post-truth era.
Oyadeyi, A. E. (2021). Influence of social media on youth participation in politics in Nigeria: A case of the 2015-2019 general elections. ResearchGate.
Shah, D. V., Kwak, N., & Holbert, R. L. (2005). "Connecting" and "disconnecting" with civic life: Patterns of Internet use and the production of social capital. Political Communication, 22(2), 109 128. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600590933160
Statista. (2021). Number of Facebook users in Nigeria from 2017 to 2025. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/804841/number-of-facebook-users-nigeria/
Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363-379.
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2012). Is there social capital in a social network site? Facebook use and college students' life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875-901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x
Vergeer, M., Hermans, L., & Sams, S. (2013). Online social networks and micro-blogging in political campaigning: The exploration of a new campaign tool and a new campaign style. Party Politics, 19(3), 477-501.
Vitak, J., Zube, P., Smock, A., Carr, C. T., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2011). It's complicated: Facebook users' political participation in the 2008 election. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour, and Social Networking, 14(3), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0226
Vitalis, P. O., Amadi, R. N., & Whyte, D. H. (2024). Social Construct of Nollywood Films and Ethnocentrism in Southern Nigeria. CINEJ Cinema Journal, 12(2), 152-179.
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Xenos, M. A., & Moy, P. (2007). Direct and differential effects of the Internet on political and civic engagement. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 704-718. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00362.x.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Aliyu, M. A. (2023). Original Paper Modernization, Marxist, Dependency and Alternative Theories of Development Communication: A Critical Review.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Garba, S. (2023). Media and National Development in Democratic Societies. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 3(3), 105-115.
Adegoke, A. A., & Oso, L. (2015). Social media and political participation in Nigeria: A case study of Twitter usage during the 2015 general elections. International Journal of Communication, 9, 1904-1924.
Adekunle, A. F., & Afolabi, O. (2019). The role of social media in political participation in Nigeria. Journal of Public Affairs, 19(2), 1-11.
Adepoju, O., & Oluwatosin, D. A. (2022). Power to the people: Social media as a catalyst for political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Communication, 16, 4319-4336.
Agbaje, A., & Adejumobi, S. (Eds.). (2007). Nigeria's critical election, 2007. Nordic Africa Institute.
Aginam, A. M. (2017). Social media and political participation in Nigeria. Journal of African Media Studies, 9(2), 187-204.
Akinyetun, T. O., & Akinola, O. A. (2022). Social media, political efficacy and political participation in Nigeria. Plaridel: A Philippine Journal of Communication, Media, and Society, 19(1), 1-16.
Akwara, A. O., & Oyedele, E. (2019). Social media and political behavior: Evidence from Nigeria's 2015 presidential election. Journal of African Elections, 18(2), 118-137.
Ameyaw, R. B., & Saeed, T. (2020). Social media and political communication in Africa: An analysis of the role of Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp in Nigeria's 2019 general elections. Media International Australia, 178(1), 22-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X20959590
Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. (2019). Social media and political participation in Ghana. Information Technology & People, 32(3), 675-696. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-10-2017-0346
Aondover, E. M. & Pate, H. (2021). National interest, freedom of expression and the Nigerian press in contemporary democratic context. Brazilian Journal of African Studies, 6(11), 233-249.
Aondover, E. M. (2019). Good governance and accountability: an assessment of the media’s role in achieving transparency in the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. Brazilian Journal of African Studies, 4(7), 209-225.
Aondover, E. M., & Akin-Odukoya, O. (2024). Trends and Dynamics of Popular Culture and Media Messages on Public Transport Literature in Nigeria. Lakhomi Journal Scientific Journal of Culture, 5(3), 183-195.
Aondover, E. M., Daushe, A. U., Ogunbola, O., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Media Coverage of Internally Displaced Persons in two Selected Newspapers in Nigeria. Journal of Migration and Health, 100301.
Aondover, E. M., Hile,M. M. & Yar’Adua, S. M. (2023). Ethical Issues and Insecurity in Africa: The Media Dimension. Konfrontasi Journal: Culture, Economy and Social Changes, 10 (2), 58-68 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33258/konfrontasi2.v10i2.272.
Aondover, E. M., Maradun, L. U., & Yar’Adua, S. M. (2022). Mediatization of the net and internetization of the print media in Northern Nigeria. Unisia, 40(2), 335-356.
Aondover, E. M., Oyeleye, S. A., & Aliyu, M. A. (2023). New World Information and Communication Order and its changing role in Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) Kano. Unisia, 41(1).
Aondover, E. M., Tosin, Y. A. N., Akin-Odukoya, O. O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Exploring the Application of Social Media in Governance in Nigeria. SIASAT, 10(1), 30-43.
Aondover, P. O., Aondover, E. M., & Babele, A. M. (2022). Two nations, same technology, different outcomes: Analysis of technology application in Africa and America. Journal of Educational Research and Review, 1(1), 001-008.
Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531-1542.
Bekafigo, M., & McBride, A. (2013). Who tweets about politics? Political participation of Twitter users during the 2011 gubernatorial elections. Social Science Computer Review, 31(5), 625-643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439313490405.
Bode, L., & Dalrymple, K. E. (2019). Politics in 140 characters or less: Campaign communication, network interaction, and political participation on Twitter. Journal of Political Marketing, 18(4), 381-405.
Boulianne, S. (2015). Social media use and participation: A meta-analysis of current research. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 524-538. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1008542
Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2017). The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Advances in Political Psychology, 38(S1), 127-150.
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Jung, N., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals' social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(3), 319-336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01574.x
Graham, T., Broersma, M., Hazelhoff, K., & van't Haar, G. (2013). Between broadcasting political messages and interacting with voters: The use of Twitter during the 2010 UK general election campaign. Information, Communication & Society, 16(5), 692- 716. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.785580.
Guanah, J. S. (2024). Social Media, Popular Culture and Contending African Ethical Models. In G. E. Oboh (Ed) Social Science Ethics for Research and Practice: An African Perspective. (pp. 25-42). United Kingdom: Ethics International Press Ltd.
Guanah, J. S. (2022). Politicspreneurs and Political Violence in Build-Up to Polls, On Election Day and Afterwards In Nigeria: Media as Intermediating Forces. International Journal of Communication and Social Sciences (IJCSS), 1(3):52-73.
Howard, P. N., & Hussain, M. M. (2013). Democracy's fourth wave? Digital media and the Arab Spring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ibrahim, S., & Alli, A. (2018). The influence of social media on political participation among Nigerian university students. Telematics and Informatics, 35(2), 464-474.
Idris, M. K., & Msughter, A. E. (2022). Sources of Information on National Issues among Border Communities in Yobe State, Nigeria. ASEAN Journal of Community Engagement, 6(1), 22-47.
Joseph, R. A. (2015). Social media and political change in Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 3(4), 1-10..
Kari, D. A. (2021). The use of social media in political campaigns in Nigeria: A study of the 2019 general elections. International Journal of Communication and Media Studies, 11(1), 51-67.
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19-32). London: Sage Publications.
Kruikemeier, S., Van Noort, G., Vliegenthart, R., & De Vreese, C. H. (2019). Real-time media coverage and its effects: Linking television news content to online and offline political participation. Political Communication, 36(4), 481-503.
Kurfi, M. Y, Aondover, E. M. & Mohammed. I. (2021). Digital Images on Social Media and Proliferation of Fake News on Covid-19 in Kano, Nigeria. Galactica Media: Journal of Media Studies, 1(1), 103-124. Doi: https://doi.org/10.46539/gmd.v3i1.111.
Larsson, A. O., & Kalsnes, B. (2014). The post-subculturalist: Blogging as a political and counter-cultural project. Journal of Youth Studies, 17(1), 24-41.
Lee, J. K., & Ma, L. (2012). News sharing in social media: The effect of gratifications and prior experience. Computers in Human behaviour, 28 (2), 331-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.002
Lee, S. T., Park, J. S., & Kim, Y. J. (2014). Deliberation among netizens: A longitudinal analysis of online discussion on nuclear power plants in South Korea. Information, Communication & Society, 17(6), 712-730. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.895948.
Madueke, O., Nwosu. C., Ogbonnaya. C., Anumadu, A., & Okeke, V. O. (2017). The role of social media in enhancing political participation in Nigeria. IDOSR Journal of Arts and Management, 2(3): 44-54,
Madueke, O., Ogbonna, C., & Anumadu, E. (2017). Public perception of social media contributions to political participation processes in Delta State, Nigeria. Danubius Journal of Communication, 12(1), 11-25.
Maikaba, B., & Msughter, A. E. (2019). Digital Media and Cultural Globalisation: The Fate of African Value System. Humanities and Social Sciences, 12(1), 214-220.
Mojaye, E. M., & Aondover, E. M. (2022). Theoretical perspectives in world information systems: A propositional appraisal of new media-communication imperatives. Journal of Communication and Media Research, 14(1), 100-106.
Msughter, A. E., Perpetua, A. O., & Itiafa, A. L. (2023). Artificial Intelligence and the Media: Revisiting Digital Dichotomy Theory. In Information Systems Management. IntechOpen.
Neuman, W. R., Guggenheim, L., Mo Jang, S., & Bae, S. Y. (2014). The dynamics of public attention: Agenda-setting theory meets big data. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 193-214.
Nwokeafor, L. U. (2020). The impact of social media on political communication during the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. Journal of Media Critiques, 6(22), 7-21.
Obasi, M. C., & Msughter, A. E. (2023). Assessment of media coverage of environmental hazards in mining communities in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Environmental Challenges, 13, 100758.
Ogunsanwo, O. O. (2018). The role of social media in enhancing political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Communication, 12, 3877-3894.
Olaleye, S. A., & Asongu, S. A. (2018). Ethnic diversity and social media representation during Nigeria's 2015 general elections. Journal of African Elections, 17(2), 87-111.
Olorunnisola, A. A., & Adegoke, I. O. (2020). Political use of social media in Nigeria: An analysis of the 2015 and 2019 general elections. Global Media Journal: African Edition, 14(1), 1-20.
Onyekwuluje, I. O. (2021). The use of social media for political participation by youths in Nigeria. Journal of Political Science and Public Administration, 7(3), 1-12.
Oreoluwa, P. A., Vitalis, P. O., Nneka, A. Q., Collins-Dike, J., & Ridwan, M. (2024). Online Harassment of Female Journalist in Lagos State. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 4(3), 162-174.
Owens-Ibie, N., & Aondover, E. M. (2024). Hate postings on social media and peace imperatives in Nigeria. Legal challenges and political strategies in the post-truth era.
Oyadeyi, A. E. (2021). Influence of social media on youth participation in politics in Nigeria: A case of the 2015-2019 general elections. ResearchGate.
Shah, D. V., Kwak, N., & Holbert, R. L. (2005). "Connecting" and "disconnecting" with civic life: Patterns of Internet use and the production of social capital. Political Communication, 22(2), 109 128. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600590933160
Statista. (2021). Number of Facebook users in Nigeria from 2017 to 2025. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/804841/number-of-facebook-users-nigeria/
Tufekci, Z., & Wilson, C. (2012). Social media and the decision to participate in political protest: Observations from Tahrir Square. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 363-379.
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2012). Is there social capital in a social network site? Facebook use and college students' life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875-901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x
Vergeer, M., Hermans, L., & Sams, S. (2013). Online social networks and micro-blogging in political campaigning: The exploration of a new campaign tool and a new campaign style. Party Politics, 19(3), 477-501.
Vitak, J., Zube, P., Smock, A., Carr, C. T., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2011). It's complicated: Facebook users' political participation in the 2008 election. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour, and Social Networking, 14(3), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0226
Vitalis, P. O., Amadi, R. N., & Whyte, D. H. (2024). Social Construct of Nollywood Films and Ethnocentrism in Southern Nigeria. CINEJ Cinema Journal, 12(2), 152-179.
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Xenos, M. A., & Moy, P. (2007). Direct and differential effects of the Internet on political and civic engagement. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 704-718. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00362.x.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Aliyu, M. A. (2023). Original Paper Modernization, Marxist, Dependency and Alternative Theories of Development Communication: A Critical Review.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Garba, S. (2023). Media and National Development in Democratic Societies. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 3(3), 105-115.