Counterfactual Structure and Regret Intensity: Cross Linguistic Experiments on How Grammatical Mood Shapes Post Decision Emotions
Main Article Content
Abstract
Regret is a counterfactual emotion requiring mental simulation of alternatives to reality. Languages differ dramatically in grammatical mood marking for counterfactuals from obligatory subjunctive (Spanish, Turkish) to optional periphrastic (English) to absent (Mandarin). Whether these grammatical differences shape regret intensity remains unknown. This review synthesizes cross‑linguistic experimental evidence testing whether obligatory counterfactual mood increases post‑decision regret, whether fine‑grained mood distinctions produce graded effects, and what mechanisms explain these effects. We integrate behavioural, eye‑tracking, and self‑paced reading experiments comparing speakers of Spanish, Turkish, German, English, and Mandarin. Standardised decision scenarios with negative outcomes were used, measuring regret intensity, counterfactual generation latency/frequency, and rumination. Multilevel mediation and within‑language mood manipulations were employed. Obligatory mood produces significantly higher regret (Cohen’s *d* up to 1.13) than optional or absent marking, mediated by faster counterfactual generation. Fine‑grained distinctions (past perfect vs. imperfect subjunctive) amplify regret selectively for irreversible outcomes. Mandarin speakers show lower regret but higher rumination, suggesting deliberative processing. Processing fluency reduced cognitive effort for counterfactual simulation when mood is obligatory is the primary mechanism. Grammatical mood is a cognitive determinant of regret intensity, not merely an expressive device. Regret’s phenomenology is partially grammatically constructed. Future research should use neurolinguistic methods, developmental designs, artificial language learning, and clinical trials of “grammatical distancing” for regret‑based disorders. Applications in legal, medical, and marketing contexts should account for cross‑linguistic mood variation.
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Ridwan, M., & Belay Sitotaw Goshu. (2026). Counterfactual Structure and Regret Intensity: Cross Linguistic Experiments on How Grammatical Mood Shapes Post Decision Emotions . LingLit Journal Scientific Journal for Linguistics and Literature, 6(4), 295-319. Retrieved from http://biarjournal.com/index.php/linglit/article/view/1509
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References
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Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
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Byrne, R. M. J. (2002). Mental models and counterfactual thoughts about what might have been. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(10), 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364 6613(02)01974 5
Byrne, R. M. J. (2005). The rational imagination: How people create alternatives to reality. MIT Press.
Connolly, T., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). Regret in decision making. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(6), 212–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467 8721.00203
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de Brigard, F. (2020). The counterfactual imagination: The impact of alternatives to reality on morality. In A. Abraham (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the imagination (pp. 732–748). Cambridge University Press.
De Brigard, F., Molitor, R., & Cabeza, R. (2021). Plausibility in episodic counterfactual thinking does not depend on the difficulty of the mental simulation. Consciousness and Cognition, 89, 103091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2021.103091
Eckardt, E. (2025). If only judgments were different in a foreign language (Bachelor’s thesis). University of Groningen. https://gmwpublic.studenttheses.ub.rug.nl/5724/[reference:5]
Everett, D. L. (2005). Cultural constraints on grammar and cognition in Pirahã: Another look at the design features of human language. Current Anthropology, 46(4), 621–646. https://doi.org/10.1086/431525
Ferguson, H. J. (2012). Eye movements reveal rapid concurrent access to factual and counterfactual interpretations of the world. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(5), 939–961. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.637532
Galinsky, A. D., Moskowitz, G. B., & Skurnik, I. (2000). Counterfactuals as behavioral primes: Priming the simulation heuristic and consideration of alternatives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36(4), 384–409. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1409
Gillan, C. M., Morein Zamir, S., Urcelay, G. P., Sule, A., Voon, V., Apergis Schoute, A. M., Fineberg, N. A., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2014). Counterfactual processing of economic action outcome alternatives in obsessive compulsive disorder: Further evidence of impaired goal directed behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 75(8), 639–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.001
Gilovich, T., & Medvec, V. H. (1995). The experience of regret: What, when, and why. Psychological Review, 102(2), 379–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 295X.102.2.379
Givón, T. (1994). Irrealis and the subjunctive. Studies in Language, 18(2), 265–337. https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.18.2.02giv
Harris, P. L. (1996). The work of the imagination. Blackwell.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. Guilford Press.
Jin, S., Liu, S., Li, S., Liu, Z., & Guo, X. (2025). Regret and its regulation. Advances in Psychological Science, *33*(12), 2182–2195. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.2182[reference:6]
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Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1982). The simulation heuristic. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 201–208). Cambridge University Press.
Kaklauskas, A., et al. (2025). Emotion regulation and mental health across cultures: A systematic review and meta analysis. Nature Human Behaviour. (Manuscript in press)
Kiss, K. É. (1993). Counterfactual conditionals in Turkish. In G. L. Tasmowski & S. Vogeleer (Eds.), Conditionals in the languages of Europe (pp. 187–199). European Science Foundation.
Koster, E. H. W., De Lissnyder, E., & Derakshan, N. (2011). Ruminative meditation: The role of cognitive control in the development of depression and anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(5), 679–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.008
Kulakova, E., Freunberger, D., & Roehm, D. (2014). Marking the counterfactual: ERP evidence for pragmatic processing of German subjunctives. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 457. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00457
Levinson, S. C. (2003). Space in language and cognition: Explorations in cognitive diversity. Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, D. (1973). Counterfactuals. Basil Blackwell.
Liu, M. (2016). The Chinese counterfactual. Language and Linguistics, 17(2), 271–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/1606822X15614521
Majid, A. (2012). Current emotion research in the language sciences. Emotion Review, 4(4), 432–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445827
Markman, K. D., Gavanski, I., Sherman, S. J., & McMullen, M. N. (1993). The mental simulation of better and worse possible worlds. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(1), 87–109. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1993.1005
Matsumoto, D., Leroux, J. A., & Yoo, S. H. (2005). Emotion and intercultural communication. Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review, 10, 1–19.
Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925–937. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022 3514.94.6.925
Mellers, B. A., Schwartz, A., & Ritov, I. (1999). Emotion based choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3), 332–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096 3445.128.3.332
Miller, C., Wang, A., & Majid, A. (2012). Does language shape the experience of regret? A cross linguistic approach. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 1003–1008.
Mortelmans, T. (2001). Der Konjunktiv II im Deutschen: Eine modalitätstheoretische Analyse. Gunter Narr Verlag.
Nanjing Normal University. (2026). The role of explicit contextual truth in counterfactual reasoning: ERP evidence from Chinese. Brain and Language. (Article in press)
Palmer, F. R. (2001). Mood and modality (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Pavlenko, A. (2014). The bilingual mind: And what it tells us about language and thought. Cambridge University Press.
Preacher, K. J., Zyphur, M. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). A general multilevel SEM framework for assessing multilevel mediation. Psychological Methods, 15(3), 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020141
Rankin, C. H., Abrams, T., Barry, R. J., Bhatnagar, S., Clayton, D. F., Colombo, J., … & Thompson, R. F. (2009). Habituation revisited: An updated and revised description of the behavioral characteristics of habituation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 92(2), 135–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.09.012
Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 364–382. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3
Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 2909.121.1.133
Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (Eds.). (1995). What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Romero, M. (2025). Tense and mood in counterfactual conditionals: The view from Spanish. Proceedings of the Amsterdam Colloquium, 375–384. https://platform.openjournals.nl/PAC/article/view/22165[reference:8]
Sezer, E. (1990). Counterfactuals in Turkish. In H. I. Arslan (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Turkish Linguistics (pp. 275–288). Boğaziçi University Press.
Slade, B. (2011). Formal and philological inquiries into the nature of interrogative, indefinite, and negation words. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut.
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking.” In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70–96). Cambridge University Press.
Smirnova, E., & Mortelmans, T. (2019). The German Konjunktiv II as a grounding predication. Cognitive Linguistics, 30(3), 513–549. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog 2018 0029
Stalnaker, R. C. (1968). A theory of conditionals. In N. Rescher (Ed.), Studies in logical theory (pp. 98–122). Blackwell.
Thayer, J. F., & Brosschot, J. F. (2005). Psychosomatics and psychopathology: Looking up and down from the brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(10), 1050–1058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.04.014
Van Woudenberg, L. (2018). The comprehension of counterfactual conditionals: Evidence from eye tracking in the visual world paradigm. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Groningen.
von Fintel, K., & Iatridou, S. (2023). Counterfactual mood in Czech, German, Norwegian, and Russian. Natural Language Semantics, 31(2), 123–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050 023 09201 y
von Prince, K. (2025). Counterfactuality and mood. Annual Review of Linguistics, *11*, 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev linguistics 011724 121349[reference:9]
Yeung, N., & Sanfey, A. G. (2004). Independent coding of reward magnitude and valence in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(28), 6258–6264. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4537 03.2004
Yeh, D., & Gentner, D. (2005). The Chinese counterfactual. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 2385–2390.
Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (1998). The experience of regret and disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 12(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379718
Anonymous, C. (2024). Computational basis of hierarchical and counterfactual information processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. (DOI under review)
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
Bloom, A. H. (1981). The linguistic shaping of thought: A study in the impact of language on thinking in China and the West. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Byrne, R. M. J. (2002). Mental models and counterfactual thoughts about what might have been. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(10), 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364 6613(02)01974 5
Byrne, R. M. J. (2005). The rational imagination: How people create alternatives to reality. MIT Press.
Connolly, T., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). Regret in decision making. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(6), 212–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467 8721.00203
Coricelli, G., Critchley, H. D., Joffily, M., O’Doherty, J. P., Sirigu, A., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Regret and its avoidance: A neuroimaging study of choice behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 8(9), 1255–1262. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1514
Costa, A., Foucart, A., Hayakawa, S., Aparici, M., Apesteguia, J., Heafner, J., & Keysar, B. (2014). Your morals depend on language. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e94842. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094842
de Brigard, F. (2020). The counterfactual imagination: The impact of alternatives to reality on morality. In A. Abraham (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the imagination (pp. 732–748). Cambridge University Press.
De Brigard, F., Molitor, R., & Cabeza, R. (2021). Plausibility in episodic counterfactual thinking does not depend on the difficulty of the mental simulation. Consciousness and Cognition, 89, 103091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2021.103091
Eckardt, E. (2025). If only judgments were different in a foreign language (Bachelor’s thesis). University of Groningen. https://gmwpublic.studenttheses.ub.rug.nl/5724/[reference:5]
Everett, D. L. (2005). Cultural constraints on grammar and cognition in Pirahã: Another look at the design features of human language. Current Anthropology, 46(4), 621–646. https://doi.org/10.1086/431525
Ferguson, H. J. (2012). Eye movements reveal rapid concurrent access to factual and counterfactual interpretations of the world. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(5), 939–961. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.637532
Galinsky, A. D., Moskowitz, G. B., & Skurnik, I. (2000). Counterfactuals as behavioral primes: Priming the simulation heuristic and consideration of alternatives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36(4), 384–409. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1409
Gillan, C. M., Morein Zamir, S., Urcelay, G. P., Sule, A., Voon, V., Apergis Schoute, A. M., Fineberg, N. A., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2014). Counterfactual processing of economic action outcome alternatives in obsessive compulsive disorder: Further evidence of impaired goal directed behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 75(8), 639–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.001
Gilovich, T., & Medvec, V. H. (1995). The experience of regret: What, when, and why. Psychological Review, 102(2), 379–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 295X.102.2.379
Givón, T. (1994). Irrealis and the subjunctive. Studies in Language, 18(2), 265–337. https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.18.2.02giv
Harris, P. L. (1996). The work of the imagination. Blackwell.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. Guilford Press.
Jin, S., Liu, S., Li, S., Liu, Z., & Guo, X. (2025). Regret and its regulation. Advances in Psychological Science, *33*(12), 2182–2195. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.2182[reference:6]
Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93(2), 136–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 295X.93.2.136
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1982). The simulation heuristic. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 201–208). Cambridge University Press.
Kaklauskas, A., et al. (2025). Emotion regulation and mental health across cultures: A systematic review and meta analysis. Nature Human Behaviour. (Manuscript in press)
Kiss, K. É. (1993). Counterfactual conditionals in Turkish. In G. L. Tasmowski & S. Vogeleer (Eds.), Conditionals in the languages of Europe (pp. 187–199). European Science Foundation.
Koster, E. H. W., De Lissnyder, E., & Derakshan, N. (2011). Ruminative meditation: The role of cognitive control in the development of depression and anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(5), 679–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.008
Kulakova, E., Freunberger, D., & Roehm, D. (2014). Marking the counterfactual: ERP evidence for pragmatic processing of German subjunctives. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 457. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00457
Levinson, S. C. (2003). Space in language and cognition: Explorations in cognitive diversity. Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, D. (1973). Counterfactuals. Basil Blackwell.
Liu, M. (2016). The Chinese counterfactual. Language and Linguistics, 17(2), 271–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/1606822X15614521
Majid, A. (2012). Current emotion research in the language sciences. Emotion Review, 4(4), 432–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445827
Markman, K. D., Gavanski, I., Sherman, S. J., & McMullen, M. N. (1993). The mental simulation of better and worse possible worlds. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(1), 87–109. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1993.1005
Matsumoto, D., Leroux, J. A., & Yoo, S. H. (2005). Emotion and intercultural communication. Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review, 10, 1–19.
Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925–937. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022 3514.94.6.925
Mellers, B. A., Schwartz, A., & Ritov, I. (1999). Emotion based choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3), 332–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096 3445.128.3.332
Miller, C., Wang, A., & Majid, A. (2012). Does language shape the experience of regret? A cross linguistic approach. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 1003–1008.
Mortelmans, T. (2001). Der Konjunktiv II im Deutschen: Eine modalitätstheoretische Analyse. Gunter Narr Verlag.
Nanjing Normal University. (2026). The role of explicit contextual truth in counterfactual reasoning: ERP evidence from Chinese. Brain and Language. (Article in press)
Palmer, F. R. (2001). Mood and modality (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Pavlenko, A. (2014). The bilingual mind: And what it tells us about language and thought. Cambridge University Press.
Preacher, K. J., Zyphur, M. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). A general multilevel SEM framework for assessing multilevel mediation. Psychological Methods, 15(3), 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020141
Rankin, C. H., Abrams, T., Barry, R. J., Bhatnagar, S., Clayton, D. F., Colombo, J., … & Thompson, R. F. (2009). Habituation revisited: An updated and revised description of the behavioral characteristics of habituation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 92(2), 135–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.09.012
Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 364–382. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3
Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 2909.121.1.133
Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (Eds.). (1995). What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Romero, M. (2025). Tense and mood in counterfactual conditionals: The view from Spanish. Proceedings of the Amsterdam Colloquium, 375–384. https://platform.openjournals.nl/PAC/article/view/22165[reference:8]
Sezer, E. (1990). Counterfactuals in Turkish. In H. I. Arslan (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Turkish Linguistics (pp. 275–288). Boğaziçi University Press.
Slade, B. (2011). Formal and philological inquiries into the nature of interrogative, indefinite, and negation words. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut.
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking.” In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70–96). Cambridge University Press.
Smirnova, E., & Mortelmans, T. (2019). The German Konjunktiv II as a grounding predication. Cognitive Linguistics, 30(3), 513–549. https://doi.org/10.1515/cog 2018 0029
Stalnaker, R. C. (1968). A theory of conditionals. In N. Rescher (Ed.), Studies in logical theory (pp. 98–122). Blackwell.
Thayer, J. F., & Brosschot, J. F. (2005). Psychosomatics and psychopathology: Looking up and down from the brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(10), 1050–1058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.04.014
Van Woudenberg, L. (2018). The comprehension of counterfactual conditionals: Evidence from eye tracking in the visual world paradigm. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Groningen.
von Fintel, K., & Iatridou, S. (2023). Counterfactual mood in Czech, German, Norwegian, and Russian. Natural Language Semantics, 31(2), 123–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050 023 09201 y
von Prince, K. (2025). Counterfactuality and mood. Annual Review of Linguistics, *11*, 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev linguistics 011724 121349[reference:9]
Yeung, N., & Sanfey, A. G. (2004). Independent coding of reward magnitude and valence in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(28), 6258–6264. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4537 03.2004
Yeh, D., & Gentner, D. (2005). The Chinese counterfactual. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 2385–2390.
Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & van der Pligt, J. (1998). The experience of regret and disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 12(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379718