Types of Sentences Used by Male and Female Writers in Journal Article Abstracts

This study analyzed the types of sentences used in the Abstracts of Journal Articles written by 10 Female and 10 Male fully sourced from the Book Program of The First Annual International Seminar UNIMED Medan: November 19, 2016. Of the 195 sentences, 102 of which were written by females, and 92 by Males, all types of sentences are present. The occurrence of the types of sentence used by Females is Simple Sentence (50.1%), Complex Sentence (37.1%), Complex Compound Sentence (6.8%), and Compound Sentence (4.9%). By Males, Simple Sentence is (50.%), Complex Sentence (41%), Compound Sentence (5.4%) and ComplexCompound Sentence (3.3%). Thus, this proves that the frequency is only different in ComplexCompound, i.e. by Females in the third place, but by Males in the fourth and Compound in the third. Overall, it can be concluded that gender has no relation with sentence types.


I. Introduction
Similar to the advancement of technology the study of language which plays a crucial role in humanity, and is used to communicate, or even to write a program such as writing orders for a program, to execute using programming language, seems to be never ending too. When people's needs change, they will have a change of needs about language as well. Global change causes global needs and these needs always need language. All is because language enables us to communicate fine details of information as seamlessly as the language allows, communicating effectively using the pre-set rules and system understood and adopted by the two communicating nodes.
In other words, the existence of language and humans must keep going hand in hand. Thus, investigation into the existence of the two and their relationship will keep going. There are always new things worth doing. For example, one should be really aware that the world is comprised of people of different traits, religions, beliefs, even geographically, living in the seven continents in the world, all with their own unique features, and undoubtedly, languages, be it semantically, spelling wise, etc. Even the same language could have many variations, e,g. dialects, language styles or elements.
To know a language better and better, certainly, basic understanding of it cannot be abandoned. There must not be any gap left or forgotten so that the knowledge of it is leading to perfectness and completeness. For instance, language as conceived of by Chomsky is "a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Thus, a grammar of a language should be thought of as "a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis" (Chomsky, 1957:13). Sweet (2008), an English phonetician and language scholar, stated: "Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts." Part of speech is the classification of words according to the function each word. It will continue to be phraseclause -sentences -paragraph and essay. Grammar mastery has complete control or knowledge in the study of science of rules for forming words and combining them into sentences. In almost every language we always find what is called sentences, whether in spoken or written mode, we mostly express our thought in the form of sentences. In linguistics, a sentence is a grammatical unit of words, bearing minimal syntactic relation to the word that precedes or follows it, often preceded and followed in speech by pause, having one of a small number of characteristic intonation patterns.
According to Hogue (1995: 8) a sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. More specific explanation about sentence was given by Frank (1972). According to him a sentence is generally classified in two types, they are based on the function and number of predication. Types of sentences based on the functions are called declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences. Types of sentences based on number of predication are simple, compound, complex and compound -complex sentences.
Considering these massive amounts of variations, it is not impossible that language could vary among different genders. A section which the writer found particularly interesting is sentence types variation among male and female. Researching this matter, could potentially unlock new facts and insights that could be useful in many fields. One of them, which is particularly appealing to the writer, is the types of sentence which are used by writers according to gender in the Abstracts of Journal Articles. Through this study, whether or not there is any difference in the using of the types of sentence in those Abstracts based on gender will be revealed.

II. Review of Literatures
As mentioned before, in the background of this study, there are many differences and unique qualities present within humanity. This includes differences in languages as well, or even within a single language. This is particularly true, considering if we pay close attention to our daily communications, where even within the same language, say for example Indonesian, among different persons present unique linguistic idiosyncrasies.
Gender differences in communication are not something that we are born with, they're not due to differences in brain, and they're definitely not due to the two sexes being from different planets. "We are who we are and we communicate how we communicate because it is what society and culture demand of us." (Herring, 1994: 3).
The different styles and motives for communication represent different "cultural upbringings", and one is not necessarily better than the other. The basic uses of conversation by women are to establish and support intimacy, i.e. they seek acceptance, while for men it is to gain status. Moreover, men tend to interrupt more and ask questions less (Rossetti, 2000: 1).
Moreover, Baron (2005:5) states that males were more aggressive and insulting, while female discourse was more aligned and supportive, reflected in the fact that females used three times as many representations of smiles or laughter. This part of the study will be concerning four parts, namely definition of sentence, the types of sentence, review of related studies, review of related theories, and finally, the theoretical framework. The first part will be exercised by reviewing existing literatures, particularly those concerning the main issue of this study, i.e. sentence structures differences among male and female. Review of related theories on the second part will be concerning theories published by other researchers that relates closely to the matter in concern. Last but not least, theoretical framework shall disclose the main points that will be discussed, and their connection to the theories previously mentioned.

Definition of Sentence
A sentence is a series of words expressing one or more ideas. Each idea in a sentence is expressed by a clause (Winter, 1999:3). A sentence may express a complete thought. According to Fleming (2006:1) a sentence is a group of words which contains at least one clause, that is a sentence contains at least one subject and at least one finite or main verb. In conclusion, a sentence is the basic unit of thought in English grammar which consists of subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. A basic sentence also consists of a subject and verb (Keith, 2010:2). So, a simple sentence consists of a clause. There are two types of clause: independent clause and dependent clause. Independent clause can stand alone as a complete grammatical sentence. It contains the main subject and verb of the sentence. On the other hand, dependent clause cannot stand alone as a grammatical sentence because of an extra element that changes an independent clause into a dependent clause. It must always be connected to independent clause.

Sentence Patterns
If we want to analyze a sentence, we must identify subject, predicate, object, and complement. These components of sentence are explained below. Subject is the word or group of words in a sentence about what is said and which serves as the starting point or doer of the action. It is usually a noun or pronoun or other word functioning as pronoun or noun. For example in the sentences "Rose was my classmate at SMA. We used to have a discussion regularly", "Rose" and "We" are the subject of the two sentences. S Predicate is the word or word group that normally follows the subject and tells what it does, has, or what is done to it, or where it is. The predicate always includes a verb, and the verb is one of three types; linking, intransitive, or transitive as consecutively can be seen in these three sentences: My sister is a nurse. The show starts at 7.30. Everyone of us loves love songs.
Object is a noun or substantive that directly or indirectly receives the action of a verb, or one that is governed by noun phrase and prepositional phrase. Object is divided into two kinds; they are direct object (DO) and indirect object (IO) as shown through these examples: The farmer bought a dog (DO). He gave his dog (IO) some crackers (DO).
Complement is a word or group of words used to complete the meaning of another component of the sentence where it is used, for instance, the subject. When it gives more meaning for or about the subject it is called a subject complement. And when it gives more meaning or information for the object, it is called object complement as shown in these two sentences: "She is a nurse. She found the patient fainted." "Nurse" is subject complement as it gives more meaning for the subject 'she". Meanwhile, "fainted" is object complement since it provides additional information about the patient which is an object of the transitive verb "found".
In view of meaning completeness clause is divided into two kinds, namely, a principal or independent or also called main clause which has a complete meaning. And a subordinate, or dependent clause which has an incomplete meaning. The similarity between the two kinds is that both have a subject, a predicate as well as one main verb. In other words, the difference only lies in the incompleteness of the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "The man who is fat is now eating less than before.", "The man is now eating less than before" is Principal Clause, and "Who is fat" is a subordinate clause.

Sentence Types
Sentences are defined as a group of words that aims to express a complete thought that contains at least one subject and one verb. Oshima & Hogue (2007) divided sentences into four types namely simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence and compound-complex sentence.

a. Simple Sentence
Simple sentences consist of subjects and verbs that can be combined with other elements such as objects, complements, and adverbs but those elements are optional (Alwi et al., 2003;Oshima & Hogue, 2007). However, Alwi et al.'s (2003) view show that simple sentences only have one subject-verb pair (Subject-Verb) while Oshima and Hogue's (2007) view show that simple sentences have other patterns namely Subject-Verb Verb and Subject-Subject-Verb Verb. For instance, a sentence of Subject-Verb-Verb pattern is Transformers film entertained and thrilled audiences everywhere; this sentence is categorized into a compound sentence if it is seen from Alwi et al.'s (2003)

view.
A simple sentence is made up of one complete subject and one complete predicate. The sentence could be short or long. A simple sentence is the utterance which has one subject and one predicate. Both subject and predicate can be compound such as: Dono, Dini, Deni, and Danu went to the zoo yesterday and the example of the compound predicate such as: Susi goes to market in the evening and comes back from the market in the afternoon.

b. Compound Sentence
Compound sentences are composed of at least two simple sentences or two independent clauses that are joined by coordinators (e.g. and, but, so, and or) (Oshima & Hogue, 2007). A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses. Each clause is a simple sentence that could stand alone. A compound sentence is an utterance that contains two or more independent clauses. Each independent clause is a compound sentence can stand alone as a separate sentence. Compound sentences are the sentences which have two or more full predication in the form of independent clause. In the other words, it contains two or more independent clause.
There are 3 conjunctions in compound sentence, namely, 1. punctuation: semi colon (;), 2. coordinating conjunction, such as: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so and 3. conjunctive adverb, such as: besides, likewise, moreover (addition), otherwise (condition), accordingly, consequently, hence, than, therefore (result), then (time), nevertheless, still (concession). This explanation can be exemplified through these sentences: Part of the search party went to the right; the rest went to the left. (punctuation); Mike was sick; therefore he did not come to school (conjunctive adverb); Mike was sick, so he did not come to school. (coordinating conjunction): The examples of sentences above show clearly that compound sentences are characterized by words of conjunction or even by a semicolon to combine two or more simple sentences.

c. Complex Sentence
Complex sentences are a sentence type that combines one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses that are connected by subordinators, relative pronouns. (Oshima & Hogue, 2007).
In other words, of the two or more clauses contained in a complex sentence one must be independent and the other a dependent clause. Each clause consists of a subject and a predicate. Thus, a complex sentence is made up of two or more predications. The independent clause (or, main clause) is similar to the form of the simple sentence and the remaining clause (s) depend on the main clause in order to stand meaningfully. More specifically, a dependent clause is joined to the main clause by relative pronoun, who, which, that, or by of the numerous subordinating conjunction such as soon after, although, as, because, before, if, since, unless, when, why. Dependent clauses are used as noun, as adjective or as adverb. In conclusion, complex sentence consists of one independent clause using relative pronoun or subordinate conjunction such as "When the farmer got to his farm, he did not see the hoe he had left there the day before" and "Soon after Henry and Mary finished studying, they both took a drink at the cafe nearby." From the above explanation and examples of complex sentences, it can be said that the existence of two or more clauses in a complex sentence is a matter of meaning completeness which is divided into two kinds, namely, a principal or independent or also called main clause. The main clause has a complete meaning. But the subordinate, or dependent clause has an incomplete meaning. Both must be joined together in order to carry a unity of meaning contained in the sentence. Obviously, there is similarity between the two kinds of clauses namely both have a subject, a predicate as well as one finite or main verb. The difference only lies in the incompleteness of the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "The man who is fat is now eating less than before.", "The man is now eating less than before" is Principal Clause, and "Who is fat" is a subordinate clause.

d. Compound-Complex Sentence
Compound-complex sentences are a sentence type that has at least three clauses that consist of any combination of dependent and independent clauses. This sentence type is connected by coordinators and subordinators. In addition, there are rules for using commas in the complex sentences: 1) the use of comma for separating clauses when a dependent clause comes first and 2) the use of comma that when an independent clause comes first.
We can also say that compound-complex sentence is the combination between compound sentence and complex sentence with one or more dependent clauses. For example, "Many students drive their cars to the college, but others prefer to take public transportation because free parking a car at the campus is unavailable." and "If students wish to park in the campus parking lots, they must pay for permit, or the campus police will tag their cars.
The first sentence shows that coordinators "but" means contrast and it is also followed by coordinator "because" shows the reason. A comma usually appears before coordinate conjunction, especially if the clauses are long.
The comma after the dependent clause in second sentence is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. It is also followed by coordinative conjunction "or" which shows a choice. This is to say that a sentence which has the combination of coordinative conjunction with two or more independent sentences belongs to compound sentence. And if it also entails one or more dependent clauses such a sentence becomes is called complex -compound sentence.

Sentence Voice
Sentences can also be seen in terms of voice. When the subject is the agent or the doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Voice is sometimes called diathesis. The basic construction of active voice is Subject, Predicate and Object. In the sentence: "Angela is making a cake" , for example, "Angela" is the subject, "is making" the predicate and "a cake" the object of the transitive verb 'making"

e. Passive Sentence
Passive sentence has passive meaning. In the passive sentence, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. It is only transitive verbs (that are followed by an object) that can be passivized. For example, The sentence "Mary helped the boy" is passivized into "The boy was helped by Mary", in which "the boy" becomes the subject and "Mary" becomes the object. There is a change of grammatical function due to the change of the voice of the sentence.
Active sentence and passive sentence are also called by active voice and passive voice. Frank (1972) stated that voice in English grammar refers to the active or passive use of a verb. The active voice is used is passive voice in making a straightforward statement about an action; that is, "the doer" of the action is the grammatical subject, and "the receiver" of the action is the grammatical object. In the passive voice the same action is referred to indirectly; that is, the original 'receiver" of the action is the grammatical subject, and the original "doer" of the action is the grammatical object of the preposition by.
Because the grammatical subject of a passive verb is the original object of an active verb, only a transitive verb may be used in the passive voice. Since it is generally preferable to make a direct statement of an action, a good writer chooses the active voice wherever possibleTo sum up the theoretical information about sentence in English particularly, according to the context of the study, it can be stated that a sentence is known as a collection of words which consists of subject and predicate. Subject can be one or more words; predicate contains one or more verbs one of which must be a finite or main verb plus other elements such as object, complement and or adverbials. A sentence has its own kind depending on the number of clauses it has as well as how the clauses are combined, be it by relative pronoun or by conjunction or coordinator. Such categorization will determine its kind or type into Simple Sentence, Complex sentence, Compound Sentence or Complex -Compound Sentence. Further, the sentence, in view of sentence voice, can be Active Voice or Passive Voice.

Relevant Studies
In conducting the analysis, reviewing previous works is necessary. There have been quite a number of studies done dealing with sentence types such as that by Jasim Mohammed Hasan of Shatt Al-Arab University College, titled "Gender Differences in the Use of Sentence Type and Sentence Modifiers: An Analysis of Emails by Iraqi Learners of English." Next was that by Ernawati (2013) entitled " An analysis types of sentences used by students' Essay writing at the Third semester of IAIN Tulungagung in the 2013/2014 Academic year". The result of her research showed that of all the 684 sentences analyzed simple sentence type consists of 310 (45.3%), compound sentence 129 (18.9%), complex sentence 163 (23.8%) and compound complex sentence 82 (12%).
The next study was conducted by Faudiyah (2015) namely the analysis of the types of sentences used in Bilingual Text books. The result revealed that the frequency of simple sentences was 52.06%, compound sentence 8.83%, complex sentence 32.89% and compound complex sentence 6.20%. In the study besides types of sentences, sentence voices were also analyzed. In simple sentence type, active sentence was 38.15% and passive sentence 13.90%, and in the compound type, Active sentence was 16.16%, passive sentence 16, 72%. Even the types of dependent clauses were investigated, too. The types of dependent clauses that were found are adjective clause 41.90%, noun clause 6.19%, and adverbial clause 51.90.7%. In compound complex sentence, Active sentence was 2.25% and Passive sentence 3.94%.
Another related research was conducted by Subekti (2017). The study was aimed at finding out the mastery of complex sentences of students of Writing 5 of an English Education Program in Indonesia. The participants of the research were 24 pre-service English teachers in a Writing 5 class at an English Education program in Indonesia. By applying document analysis as the main method of data collection, it found that complex sentences containing multiple clause structures became the most frequently written of all, and among the four types of complex sentences, sentences containing multiple clause structures became the most frequently written of all complex sentences. Secondly, students' mastery of complex sentences containing noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses was good. Their mastery of complex sentence containing multiple clause structures, however, was surprisingly very low despite their low attainment of relatively good results on the three above-mentioned basic types of complex sentence.

III. Research Methods
This study applied analytical and descriptive method in which the two kinds of data are analyzed so as to describe the existence of each in its own setting. The description of each kind of data would show the comparison of their frequencies of occurrence. The comparison itself would also reveal the frequency within the same kind of data and between the two kinds of data.

Data and Source of Data
The data of the research are the sentences contained in 20 Abstracts chosen purposively, 10 abstracts written by female writers, and 10 by male writers, fully sourced from the Book Program of The First Annual International Seminar on Transformative Education and Educational Leadership (AISTEEL): Developing Future teachers' Educational Model. Medan: Post Graduate School, State University of Medan. The writers are all lecturers in several fields both natural sciences and social sciences from a number of universities in North Sumatera.

Data Collection
Out of the 120 Abstracts contained in the Book Program, 20 were purposively selected as the sample. The selection was done by identifying the authors' names so as to ascertain the gender of each and to get the required number of samples for female and male authors.

Data Analysis
In the analysis every single sentence in each Abstract according to their types, namely Simple, Compound, Complex used by male and female was classified. After all the twenty 20 Abstracts were grouped according to types, they were put into a table so as to see clearly the existence of sentences of each type individually and collectively. The classification of sentences would be in accordance with definitions of each type of sentence given in the theoretical information.

Analysis Result Percentage of Sentence Types by Females and Males
In was revealed that some inaccuracy of lexicogrammatical use did occur in those texts. However, in line with the concern of the study which is only to ensure the types of sentence used in those two groups of Abstracts, one by Females the other one by Males, the inaccurate sentences were ignored and are not exposed in this study. After going through the procedures as said in the Methodology it is confirmed that the number of sentences in all 20 Abstracts are 197 sentences, 102 sentences in those written by Females and 95 sentences in those written by Males. In terms of number of sentences it can be concluded that Females tend to write more sentences (51.78%) than Males (48.22%). The analysis shows that all four types of sentence do exist in both Abstracts. The number and types of all sentences found: Simple Sentence, Complex Sentence, Compound Sentence and Complex and Compound Sentence are shown in the two Tables below: In order to see the result of the analysis more specifically both the frequency of occurrence of each within the same gender and between genders, the two results above can be combined into one table like the following. It is clearly seen from the table that of the 195 sentences, 102 of which are sentences written by Females, and 92 sentences by Males, all types of sentences are present. Globally, when joined, the sequence, from the highest to the lowest is Simple Sentence (50.3%), followed by Complex Sentence (39.5%). Meanwhile, Compound and Complex -Compound Sentence are equal, namely 5.1%. The occurrence of the types of sentence used by Females from the highest to the lowest frequency is Complex-Compound that is higher than Compound; whereas, by Males, it is the Compound Sentence that is higher. More specifically, the sequences of occurrence for both Females and Males are as follows: By Females, Simple Sentence (50.1%), respectively followed by Complex Sentence (37.1%), and Complex and Compound Sentence (6.8%), and Compound Sentence (4.9%). By Males, Simple Sentence is (50.%), Complex Sentence (41%), Compound Sentence (5.4%) and Complex-Compound Sentence (3.3%).Obviously, it is only in Complex and Compound Sentence where the Female Authors wrote a bit more frequently than Males did. Thus, this proves there is only a slight difference in one type of sentence, i.e. Complex -Compound Type; whereas, in the other three types, the difference is not found at all. Even, overall, it can be concluded that kinds of sentence have nothing to do with gender.

Discussion
Based on the result of the study, now the frequency of occurrences of the types of sentences can be described both within the same gender and between genders. Within the same gender by female, from the highest to the lowest is simple m sentence, complex sentence, Complex-compound and lastly by Compound sentence type. However, the order of frequency by male is not the same, namely starting with Simple Sentence as the highest, followed by Complex sentence, Compound and Complex and Compound sentence in the lowest place.
The result of the study has been specifically shown in the three tables as well as the result description above. The revelation shows us that both as a whole and based on both genders it is Simple Sentences that are on top level, with only 0.1% higher by Females for Simple Sentence Type, followed by Complex Sentence Type, with 4.2 higher by Males. So, the two are the more and most common types of sentence in those kinds of Abstracts. Meanwhile, Compound and Complex -Compound Sentences are equal in number on the lowest level. Further, both Compound Sentences and Complex -Compound Sentences are different in Levels, by Females it is the Complex -Compound that is higher than the Compound; whereas, it is the reverse by Males.
With reference to the previous results of analysis of sentence types done by Ernawati ( 2013), Faudiyah (2015) and Subekti ( 2017) as mentioned in the section of relevant studies, in which no consistency of occurrence of the types of sentence used in those various texts regardless of gender can be fixed, it seems that the same statement applies to gender-based texts. When in those texts it is Simple Sentence Type that is the most dominant that condition also happens in overall texts and gender -based texts. The least frequency of occurrence also tends to be for complex compound sentence. Then, this far no significant difference due to types of text and gender can be asserted regarding the types of sentence that are in favour. It is only about simpleness that becomes the priority.
What else can be explained based on the result of analysis? Concerning such a result, something that needs to discuss most probably is that gender does not affect types of sentence types in favour. Nevertheless, two which are in favour or common are Simple Sentences and Complex Sentences. Another question which is perhaps more challenging to talk over is why the authors prefer to use Complex Sentences to Compound Sentences as both are the combination of two clauses as stated in the theoretical part of this study. Is it because the result of analysis in every article that was condensed in those Abstracts needs much explanation as modifiers which occur in complex sentences? Or in another word, is it because not much long explicit message is less needed than concise message in academic texts? Why is a combination of two or more clauses using relative pronouns to be more preferable than using conjunctions or coordinators? Maybe these are some questions that are worth answering. This can be justified by the finding that women tend more than men to express themselves in a simple way and their style is characterized by supportiveness and attenuation with expressions of appreciation, thanking and community building, whereas men tend to seek status, powerfulness, dominance and their style is characterized by strong and continuous assertions (Herring, 1994:4-5).
The discrepancy between the previous findings on the issue being discussed in this study, a discussion on the issue is still important to do. However, prior to that, it is urgent to find out specifically about the linguistic form differences since they did not explicitly mention that the linguistic form they were talking was about types of sentence as intended in this study. Culture is another possible factor, as cited in Nemati and Bayer (2007:9), is that gender differences in language usage reflect different and unequal roles and status. She proposes that because of the low status of women and the social pressure on them to talk like a lady, women as compared to men tend to use more hedges, intensifiers, superpolite forms, question intonations, doubt expressions, etc.

V. Conclusion
First of all, it has been found that Simple Sentence Type has always been on the top level globally and by gender. For the type of Simple Sentence, Females are a bit higher than Males. Likewise, in terms of position Complex Sentence Type by the same sex Females and Males is the same, in the second place out of four. However, for Complex Sentence Type and Compound Sentence Type, Males are higher than Females. It means that Males tend to use more Complex Sentences and Compound Sentences than Females do. Surprisingly, for Complex -Compound sentence type, it is Females who are higher. Meanwhile, this type actually is the combination of Complex and Compound Sentence.